Body, Water & Experience:
Towards a Pragmatic Inquiry into the
Environmental Self
Presenter: Dr. James L. Wescoat Jr.
Aga Khan Professor Emeritus of Landscape Architecture and Geography - Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Dr. James L. Wescoat Jr. is an emeritus professor of landscape architecture and geography in the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he was also a co-director of the Norman B. Leventhal Center for Advanced Urbanism. He conducts research on the historical geography of water in South Asia, from the scale of gardens to cities, regions, and river basins. He is the author of books and articles on Mughal gardens and modern water management in northern India and Pakistan. James taught courses on “Islamic Architecture and the Environment,” “Islamic Gardens and Geographies,” “Water in Planning, Policy, and Design,” “Disaster-Resilient Design,” and various landscape and urbanism workshops in India and the U.S.
Summary
The Two Cultures session was opened by Dr. James L. Wescoat who began with an introduction to the American Pragmatic philosophical tradition. He noted that the Pragmatic tradition would be deeply skeptical of ‘two’ cultures but open to the ‘many’. He then introduced the audience to the work of Gilbert White, the leading environmental geographer of the 20th century who demonstrated that the loss of life and resources in the United States as a result of flooding in the past years had increased in direct proportion to the amount spent by the government on flood control structuress. The problem was that the structural solutions provided by the government had resulted in altered perceptions of natural hazards in communities residing in flood prone areas. On the other hand, non-structural measures such as zoning and planning were ignored. The work of Gilbert White in analyzing and “expanding the range of choice” resulted in the development of an entirely new field of hazards research.
Dr. James explained that the Pragmatic approach looks at the problem in its context or in its environment and tries to explore as many disciplines as can be marshalled to address it. In doing so, it brings attention to those possibilities which were not previously under consideration.
Explaining the work of Pragmatist philosopher John Dewey, Dr. James explained that human beings often have a quest for certainty, and while they may be able to reduce some uncertainties, absolute certainty is impossible. We have to live with and adapt to some amount of risk. Dewey asserted that all life is environmentally precarious. Dr. James also highlighted that while the Pragmatic position underlies the work of Gilbert White it was not explicitly recognized by him, which sometimes limited his ability to respond to criticism and advance his research on a philosophical level.
Dr. James also discussed many other ideas related to Dewey, William James, Herbert Mead and their approaches to self, consciousness and the environment. In the second half of the session, he discussed the importance of water in the recognition and development of the human and environmental self. He highlighted that water has held a highly significant role in the development of human cultures. In the early stories of Abraham, Ishmael and Hagar, very small amounts of water have profound meanings.
The divisions of hot, cold, wet and dry in early practices of medicine too have a fundamentally role in diagnosis of illnesses, and also an in the analysis of personalities, highlighting yet another aspect of water in understanding the human self. In terms of human development over the lifecycle, the embryo grows in a completely fluid world and when the young infant begins to feed instinctually, its sustenance also comes in the form of liquids. The environmental conditions of the mother alter the prospects of the infant before they are even born. As humans grow up and move towards latter stages of their life, the water content in their bodies begins to decrease. Their bodies begin to 'dry up', And the elderly are often not aware that their body needs water. They begin to lose their sense of thirst, and in parallel with that they also cognitively begin to lose their sense of self. Many illnesses have their origin and development in water, and illness can play an important role in increasing the levels of self-knowledge and self-consciousness. Humans are not consciously aware of their physiologies until illnesses elicit them to explore, bringing more awareness. In terms of good water management that aims to reduce water-related disease, safeguard public health and self-flourishing, Dr. James praised the Orangi Pilot Project of Karachi as a great communal accomplishment.
On reflection, Dr. James also noted that Gilbert White, in a personal interaction, had identified his inspiration more in line with William James’s Varieties of Religious Experience than with Dewey. Dr Basit Koshul highlighted that Gilbert White’s lack of awareness regarding the philosophical underpinnings of his own work may be considered another example of a lack of awareness of the self.
The floor was then opened to questions from the audience. One of audience members noted the central role of water-self connection in Dr. James’s talk and asked whether losing a sense of thirst in a more general sense was indicative of losing one’s sense of self. Dr. James appreciated this connection which drew not on the physiological meaning of the word ‘thirst’ but on its wider cultural meanings. He agreed that thirst opens other dimensions to the self and in this context, mentioned one of the beatitudes “blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness,” while in other cultural contexts thirst can be a metaphor for excessive desire. Another audience member asked about the Mughal use of water. Here Dr. James noted the famous ‘Baber Nama’ and the connection between water and risky situations of river crossings for the Mughal armies. On the positive side, the early Mughal kings made sitting areas with small water pools and streams nearby, which also served as territorial markings. For later rulers like Shah Jahan, the abundant waters of Kashmir inspired large water-based monuments, a prime example of which is the Shalamar Garden of Lahore, which was influenced by Shalimar Garden in Kashmir.
One audience member asked about connections between water availability and cultural personalities. Dr. James noted that while many scholars indeed highlight the relationship between environment and the development of self, it is not a deterministic relationship. Alternatives can be developed by and with communities to cater for water-related challenges they face. He nevertheless noted that many low-income communities living in the floodplains, who already have little access to contaminated shallow groundwater, may be treated like “encroachments” from a public policy standpoint and end up losing their dwellings and belongings. This happens quite often, and it is a good example of a problem that Gilbert White argued cries out for a need to “expand the range of choice.”
One questioner highlighted the importance of giving the right definition to water, not in a molecular sense but in the pragmatic terms of what water does. He noted that Pakistan has a vicious politics of water and public policy approaches are stuck in a utilitarian view, where in fact a far deeper dualism between materiality and spirit is involved. Dr. James noted that William James, one of the founders of Classical Pragmatism, used the term ‘stream of consciousness’ and ‘continuity of thought’. Dr. Basit added more to this point. He mentioned that for a pragmatist, water is what water does, and that water is what we do with water. William James may have been more influential in bringing in the spiritual component to the debate but Dewey is a more original resource to seeing the ‘spiritual’ as a faith in the ‘non-material’ public or civic dimension of nature, and this must also be a part of how we understand nature. The event concluded on this positive note.
Reading Material
Gilbert Fowler White (1911-2006):
Wisdom in Environmental Geography
James L. Wescoat Jr.
Wisdom in Environmental Geography
James L. Wescoat Jr.
In this memorial essay, Dr. James introduces the reader to Gilbert Fowler White. Gilbert Fowler White was the leading environmental geographer of the twentieth century, and his work helped shape environmental science, policy, and organizations on scales from the local to the international. He pioneered the fields of water resources geography and natural-hazards research. He was elected to membership in the National Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, the American Association of Arts and Sciences, and many other scientific organizations. Through these scholarly achievements, and more broadly in his life and work, he demonstrated a profound wisdom.
Wescoat Jr, J. L. (2006). Gilbert Fowler White (1911-2006): Wisdom in Environmental Geography. Geographical Review, 96(4), 700–710. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1931-0846.2006.tb00524.x.
Common Themes in the Work of Gilbert White and John Dewey:
A Pragmatic Appraisal
James L. Wescoat Jr.
The American Philosophy of Pragmatism and the Geographical Study of Natural Resources and Hazards at first sight appear to be vastly different areas of human study and thought. However, in this paper, Dr. James brings to our attention a case of remarkable affinity between two scholars, John Dewey and Gilbert White, taken from each side of the table. In this paper, Dr. James does three things. First, he looks at the influence of American Pragmatism (specially of John Dewey) on the research of environmental geographer Gilbert White. Second, he examines four common themes between Dewey and White. These are namely the precariousness of existence, the pragmatic conception of inquiry, learning from experience, and public discourse and democracy. Third, he identifies further directions and scope of these themes for the pragmatic tradition of resource and hazards research. In doing so, he not only identifies other dichotomies in the field of environmental geography such as that between social and natural perspectives, but also alternatives such as the historical role of faith and religion in shaping attitudes towards environmental and social problems.
Wescoat Jr, J. L. (1992). Common Themes in the Work of Gilbert White and John Dewey: A Pragmatic Appraisal. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 82(4), 587–607. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1992.tb01719.x
Developing Knowledge Capacity and Wisdom for Water Resource Management and Service Delivery:
New Conceptual Models and Tools
Abubakr Muhammad and James L. Wescoat Jr.
Using the “Circle of Justice” guidance for princes, which has ancient Mesopotamian origins, this chapter elaborates on the cross-cutting role of knowledge capacity in Pakistan’s water resources. As in the Circle of Justice, most of the policy issues facing Pakistan’s water sector can only be addressed by developing the ability of all actors and stakeholders to adopt holistic thinking and bridge critical knowledge gaps. These twin aspects of knowledge and capacity, holism and strategic innovation, and the need to balance them in ethical ways are addressed in this chapter through the rich metaphor of irrigated garden traditions and associated knowledge capacity in Pakistan. The chapter provides a historic perspective on knowledge capacity in the Indus Basin. Irrigated gardens provide powerful images and metaphors –– positive and negative –– for the land, water, and people of Pakistan. These can be used to reimagine and improve outcomes for water policy in Pakistan. There are three components that the irrigated gardens ideal might require: (a) focusing future knowledge capacity on the cultivation of wisdom in water use and stewardship; (b) pursuit of nature-inspired water science and technologies, especially those that benefit smallholders and landless workers; and (c) water and environmental education aimed at realizing irrigated garden ideals.
Muhammad, A., & Wescoat Jr, J. L. (2023). Developing Knowledge Capacity and Wisdom for Water Resource Management and Service Delivery: New Conceptual Models and Tools. In M. Ahmad (Ed.), Water Policy in Pakistan: Issues and Options (pp. 401–432). Cham: Springer.
Irrigated Gardens of the Indus River Basin:
Toward a Cultural Model for Water Resource Management
James L. Wescoat Jr. and Abubakr Muhammad
The cultural connections among water, gardens, humanities, and policy span more than five thousand years in the Indus River basin, from the archaeobotany of Harappan floodplain settlements to the historical geography of Mughal gardens and waterworks, to critical histories of massive colonial canal irrigation and searching reflections on postcolonial waterscapes. In this chapter the authors ask how policy inspiration can be drawn from the composite culture of irrigated gardens in the Indus basin.
Wescoat Jr, J. L., & Muhammad, A. (2021). Irrigated Gardens of the Indus River Basin: Toward a Cultural Model for Water Resource Management. In K. De Wolff, R. C. Faletti, & López-Calvo. (Eds.), Hydrohumanities : Water Discourse and Environmental Futures (pp. 190–214). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Socio‐hydrology: Use‐inspired water sustainability science for the Anthropocene
Murugesu Sivapalan, M. Konar, V. Srinivasan, A. Chhatre, A. Wutich, C.A. Scott, J.L. Wescoat, I. Rodríguez‐Iturbe
In this article, the authors identify that water poses the most difficult sustainability challenges to modern society. According to the article, contemporary scholarship on water in sustainability studies suffers from the kind of disciplinary fragmentation one finds in traditional disciplines i.e. the hard sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities. This scholarship is further characterized by a fundamental disparity between Nature and the Anthropocene, where only one-sided communication is possible. To remedy these drawbacks and in light of discovery of its potential, a new, "use-inspired" discipline, socio-hydrology is introduced which is based most prominently on the recognition and utilization of a feedback loop between human and water systems. The authors illustrate this potential by drawing on three problems - the virtual water trade paradox, the efficiency paradox, and the peak-water paradox - that cannot be fully resolved using the existing approaches. Each of these approaches involve a gap between a sustainability strategy and the expected outcome that can only be understood (and possibly bridged) if regional and local cultures where these strategies are executed are factored into the equation.
Sivapalan, M., M. Konar, V. Srinivasan, A. Chhatre, A. Wutich, C. A. Scott, J. L. Wescoat, and I. Rodríguez-Iturbe (2014), Socio-hydrology: Use-inspired water sustainability science for the Anthropocene, Earth’s Future, 2, 225–230, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013EF000164.